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Courant dominant il y a à peine une génération, le nationalisme arabe cède la place à l’islamisme. L’idée nationale, voire l’État-nation semblent avoir fait leur temps. Pourtant l’exercice du pouvoir en Tunisie et en Égypte de 2011 à 2013 s’avère funeste à l’islamisme ; l’échec et le rejet sont d’une rapidité remarquable. Restent entiers les problèmes et défis auxquels il était confronté: lutte pour l’indépendance, l’unité, la modernisation et le développement. Dans la mesure où ils demeurent d’actualité, l’expérience historique du nationalisme arabe ne perd pas sa pertinence. D’où l’intérêt de revisiter cette tentative de réaliser des avancées sur les quatre plans fondamentaux. Le nationalisme arabe a été le vecteur d’une quête de progrès, de modernité et d’émancipation. Il est possible qu’il appartienne définitivement au passé, mais la non-réalisation des aspirations qu’il a incarnées rend toujours concevable sa réactivation.

The French Resistance press was born following the defeat of France and the signing of the armistice with Germany in June 1940. It embodied the will of some French citizens to refuse the occupation and to represent an alternative to Vichy France. In addition to countering official propaganda, the underground newspapers published their vision of the France to be rebuilt in the post-war period. Our master’s thesis analyzes the perception of the Allies in the French Resistance press between 1940 and 1944, in order to highlight the extent to which France's place in the world is visible through the vision shown of the three great powers, who are allies, but who could represent threats after the Liberation. The portraits of the Allies allow us to analyze and understand the plans and concerns of the Resistance. Based on a discursive, diachronic and thematic analysis of the clandestine newspapers, we are able to show that the perception of the Allies evolves during the course of the war, moving from a generally positive view between 1940 and 1942 to a more critical perception in the spring of 1944. At the beginning of the war, the Resistance offered a portrait of the Allies based on their military strength. Nevertheless, from 1943 onwards, it had to protect the population and gain legitimacy. This change strengthened the Resistance and allowed it to gradually impose itself as the authority protecting French interests in the face of Allies whose postwar intentions were increasingly criticized.

La France est souvent perçue comme la principale garante du traité de Versailles. Le révisionnisme français envers l’ordre établi par le traité, contrairement au même courant chez les responsables allemands, est un sujet peu étudié. Il a été abordé par quelques auteurs, tels George-Henri Soutou et Stanislas Jeannesson, mais la question mérite davantage d’élaboration. Grâce à l’analyse de la presse française, ce mémoire vérifie l’existence d’une volonté de rendre le traité de paix plus favorable à la France. Une Machtpolitik ainsi qu’un révisionnisme français sont apparents de 1919 à 1923 avec, comme zénith, l’occupation de la Ruhr. Les années suivantes virent la situation de la France se détériorer sur les plans politique, économique et diplomatique. La dégradation de sa posture inclina la France à se tourner vers une conciliation qui émanait de l’esprit du traité de Versailles. La couverture de l’actualité internationale de trois journaux français (Le Temps, L’Action française et L’Humanité) avant et après l’invasion de la Ruhr est analysée. On constate l’existence d’un révisionnisme français qui mène, après son échec en 1924, à un recentrage de la politique allemande de la France. En liant la perception des différents journaux à leur idéologie, nous avons aussi expliqué les variations dans leurs analyses des mêmes événements. L’étude de la presse, conjuguée aux sources secondaires, révèle un discours teinté d’une volonté révisionniste. Elle porte à croire, aussi, que le traité de Versailles ne fut réellement défendu en France qu’après l’échec de la politique de puissance et du révisionnisme français.

This thesis is a survey of a rarely studied field of international relations. It is interested in the role of women’s sartorial fashion within the Franco-American postwar relations between 1946 and 1960. The analysis takes on the French perspective through the prism of the public authorities and diplomatic bodies, Parisian couturiers, and textile manufacturers. This orientation highlights the two fields on which these actors wish to see manifest an influence of fashion in the United States, namely commercial and prestige propaganda. In their perspective, these two forms of propaganda can be implemented either through indirect actions (press coverage of their fashion shows) or direct actions (shows organized to promote specific products or French production as a whole). The analysis is then completed by integrating the perspective of American fashion professionals (specialized press, manufacturers and retailers) and that of the American diplomatic bodies in France, and the study of customs statistics in order to evaluate, from the viewpoint of these historical actors, the degree of success of fashion as an instrument of French influence in the United States in regard of the initial French expectations. The research question answered by this thesis is: How important is fashion as an instrument of French influence in the United States after the Second World War? In order to answer it, the analyses procedes in three steps. On the one hand, the intersection of the historical contexts of fashion and Franco-American relations highlights the importance of the advent of the American superpower. This requires the French to adapt in terms of their production methods and their relationship to the American perspective of liberal and democratic modernity. On the other hand, the research was based on a chronological approach distinguishing between the 1946-51 and 1952-60 periods. The first one precedes the state intervention in favor of the Parisian couturiers and the second one is dominated by the state-sponsored Aid to Parisian couture. The thesis shows that the commercial influence of Parisian fashion in the United States did not materialize contrary to the couturiers’ claims and to the textile industrialists’ expectations. However, with respect to its influence through prestige propaganda, the situation is quite different. Long regarded as an ersatz to the commercial purpose of propaganda by the state – with the exception of the French diplomatic bodies that particularly appreciate its prestige purpose –, from 1957, France’s “rayonnement” through the dissemination of fashion ideas becomes key to French leaders. From then on, its role is to take advantage of the craving for Parisian fashion ideas to ensure a French presence – beyond fashion – in the American market: a mass market otherwise difficult to penetrate, being the largest in the world.

The European project, through each of its milestones, outlines a new type of entity on the international scene, one which is a stranger to the nation state without being its better. From the intensification of European integration emerged a questioning on the nature of the interactions between national and European identity. In this respect, France represents a very interesting field of study as the country organised two referendums on European integration, one in 1992 and the other in 2005. The main goal of this research is to reveal the way in which the construction of a national discourse within the French public opinion is influenced by the deepening of European integration. The analysis covers both debate periods before the 1992 and 2005 referendums dealing with the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty on the Euro and the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe. This work is based on a press analysis covering both periods of debate. In order to study the evolution of the French perception of their national identity with the least political bias possible, this thesis relies on documentary resources comprising editorials and letters to the editor of four newspapers: Le Monde, Le Figaro, L’Humanité and Libération. The comparison of the identity discourses of 1992 and 2005 reveals that the relation of identification between France and Europe has drastically changed during this period. It went from a relation founded on alterity to a relation founded on shared values. In 1992, the French use the European idea as an identity referent around which they reaffirm the “frenchness” of their shared values. In 2005, the French national identity is not in question anymore. From now on, the debate turns around the values the French hope to see at the root of the European identity to which they are called to adhere. These values are henceforth drawn from the personal identity of each Frenchman rather than from an encompassing concept of the French national identity.

Throughout the nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire grew weaker and seemed headed for collapse. It became the object of the ambitions and rivalries of the European powers. Under its suzerainty, Syria, including the Mount Lebanon region, was a key area strategically since it dominated the access routes to India and southern and eastern Asia. France and England both tried to impose their influence by way of local communities. France acted through the Christian Maronites, while Britain used the Druzes. In the spring of 1860, trouble broke out between the two communities, resulting in the massacre of thousands of Christians. The European powers, at the behest of the government of Napoleon III, agreed to intervene by sending a commission of inquiry and troops. The expedition’s official mission was to help the Ottoman Empire to restore order and to protect Christians. This thesis shows that imperial France pursued political and economic goals with regard to Syria and Lebanon. The historiography had not previously analyzed in depth the real French mobile in this expedition. The political and economic ambitions were far more important in its decision to set in motion an expedition than the "humanitarian" Christian duty of providing protection or the satisfaction of the public opinion. Far from being deterred by the catastrophe of the massacre that threatened the survival of its protégés and therefore its influence in Syria, Paris, and especially its foreign minister E. Thouvenel, managed to turn the situation to his advantage. Skilfully using the desire of interference of other powers and its role as protector of Christians, France managed to corner England, which opposed the intervention, and justify it on principles far removed from its real objectives. The troubles finally represented for her an opportunity to widen the autonomy of the Mountain vis-à-vis the central authority of the Ottoman Empire and to increase the economic and political power of its clients through the revision of the administrative status of the region. In so doing, it has strengthened its influence in the eastern Mediterranean and moved a step closer to dominating Syria.

À la suite de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, l’Europe est affaiblie et divisée. Les horreurs de la guerre amènent les Européens à repenser leur cohabitation et l’idée d’une Europe, unie par des liens économiques et politiques forts, germe dans l’esprit des Européens. Ils créent alors la CECA en 1951 puis, sept ans plus tard, la Communauté économique européenne. Puisque cette dernière aura du succès, certains pays européens, dont la Grande-Bretagne, demandent à la rejoindre. La France d’alors, sous la présidence de Charles de Gaulle, s’oppose à cette demande d’adhésion à deux reprises, en 1963 et en 1967. Il faut attendre l’arrivée de Georges Pompidou à l’Élysée pour que Londres intègre la CEE. L’élargissement de la Communauté est un évènement important; il a un impact direct sur le rôle de la France en Europe et dans le monde. Il a également une incidence certaine sur le rôle de l’Europe dans le monde bipolaire de l’époque, ainsi que sur ses relations avec l’allié américain. La presse des pays concernés suivra ces évènements avec intérêt, telle la presse quotidienne française, qui commente abondamment les décisions prises par son gouvernement. Le présent mémoire, qui étudie certains journaux d’importance à la lumière des ouvrages d’érudition et des sources primaires, analyse thématiquement la position de journaux français de diverses tendances politiques sur la politique française au cours des trois demandes.

Cette étude s’intéresse à la dynamique des relations franco-belges durant l’Entre-deux-guerres. L’objectif est de définir si la Belgique a été un satellite de la France pendant la durée de l’accord militaire franco-belge de 1920. Utilisant les archives diplomatiques du ministère des Affaires étrangères belge, l’étude démontre que la Belgique, alors même qu’elle tente de maintenir une harmonie entre les membres de l’Entente (Angleterre, France, Belgique), agit dans son plus pur intérêt national. Ainsi, alors que les évènements majeurs de l’Entre-deux-guerres se déroulent -occupation de la Ruhr, signature du Traité de Locarno, démilitarisation de la Ruhr et l’élection d’Hitler- la Belgique démontre qu’elle est une actrice indépendante et importante dans l’évolution de la diplomatie européenne. La rupture de l’accord militaire franco-belge en 1936 est généralement perçue comme une rupture des relations diplomatiques entre les deux pays alors qu’elle ne représente que la volonté belge de ne pas être entrainée dans une guerre qui ne la concerne pas. Ainsi, la présente étude cherche à clarifier la relation franco-belge. Elle démontre que les interactions entre la Belgique et sa grande voisine n’ont rien d’une relation de subordination.

The rise of the European socialist movement under the leadership of the Second International at the turn of the century and its breakup with the outbreak of the 1914 war is a persistent historical problem. The contradiction is obvious. Here was a movement that firmly proclaimed "proletarian internationalism", but which, when the time came to implement it, affirmed the necessity of "national defense". The concrete forms of this contradiction are illuminated by a study of the impact of the rise of imperialism on the internationalism of French and German socialists in the period leading up to the war, from the London Congress of 1896 to the resolution of the Agadir crisis in 1912. The Second International is a movement whose organizational and practical forms are rooted in a national framework, while its fundamental conceptions are those of internationalism. Imperialism reinforces this contradiction, and becomes at the same time the source of a concretization of socialist internationalism in theory, and of its abandonment in practice. Emphasizing the analysis of internationalism as a political rather than a cultural or sentimental phenomenon, this work demonstrates the existence of a chasm between the theoretical discourse and the practice of the movement. The rise of imperialism is accompanied by the rise of reformism within the socialist movement, which, along with other phenomena, reinforces its national tendencies. The national tendencies of the movement persisted at key moments, notably the imperialist crises of Tangier (1905) and Agadir (1911), to the point of calling into question the internationalist foundations of the movement.