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La guerra civil española ha sido un episodio trágico y violento de la historia de España y, en los últimos treinta años, la historiografía ha mostrado un especial interés por el estudio de las diversas formas de violencia que surgieron durante esa contienda. Esta tesis se va a centrar en la manera en la que se justifica la guerra y la violencia por parte de los republicanos. Este enfoque de análisis nos permitirá estudiar con más precisión ese proceso justificativo en los discursos que fueron puestos en circulación por el bando republicano, visto aquí de forma general. En esta tesis analizaremos la manera en la que el conflicto fue concebido como una guerra justa cuyo objetivo último fue visto como algo más que una sencilla victoria sobre el enemigo. En un contexto dónde la derecha se había levantado contra el gobierno del Frente Popular, surgido tras las elecciones del 16 de febrero de 1936, fue bastante fácil para los republicanos defender moralmente su implicación en un conflicto que tenía todas las características de una guerra total. Sobre todo, en una época en la que la violencia se veía cada vez más como un fenómeno amoral y punible; particularmente en las naciones liberales, tras el gran trauma que supuso la I Guerra Mundial en la conciencia colectiva. A pesar de que los republicanos estaban en plena contienda contra sus enemigos fascistas, la propagación de un discurso pacifista fue la manera empleada por ellos para garantizar la moralidad de sus propósitos ante la opinión pública española y mundial. A partir del análisis de la prensa, intentaremos estudiar esta aparente contradicción, muy lejos de ser la única en el mundo, pero que permitió a los republicanos defender la paz al mismo tiempo que estaban en plena guerra civil. El bando republicano fue de todo menos un grupo homogéneo. En él había republicanos de izquierda, socialistas, comunistas estalinistas, comunistas antiestalinistas e incluso anarquistas. La amenaza que representaba el fascismo para el cumplimiento de sus objetivos políticos forzó a estos grupos a unirse en la defensa de la bandera republicana, a pesar de haber luchado entre ellos antes de la guerra, para acabar así con el enemigo común; es decir, la derecha española apoyada por las potencias fascistas alemana e italiana. Todos los republicanos, sin excepción alguna, defendieron este discurso oficial “pacifista”; aunque este calificativo se usase de manera diferente, según sus preceptos ideológicos, por parte de cada uno de estos grupos que formaban parte de esta inusitada unidad antifascista. En suma, esta tesis tratará de relacionar los campos de estudios del pacifismo, de la guerra total y de las violencias en el contexto preciso de la guerra civil española durante sus momentos más agitados; es decir, desde el verano de 1936 y hasta el final del verano de 1937.

The Great Peace of Montreal (1701) is a manifestation of the success of French-Amerindian diplomacy, highlighting the many cultural adjustments that allowed for a global alliance and peace between New France and the nations of the Pays d’en Haut. This study looks at the following decade, and the ways in which diplomatic relations between French and Natives developed in Montreal at the beginning of the 18th century. Examining the colonial correspondence that was sent back and forth from Versailles to Montreal, it analyses colonial discourses to better understand how diplomatic practices evolved, and how Montreal played a key role as the urban setting for these pluricultural negotiations. Although these letters present a Eurocentric point of view, a particular consideration was given to Native speeches given during peace negotiations that are transcribed in the correspondence, but also to everything left unsaid by the official correspondents. This study analyses first how diplomacy took place in Montreal, taking an interest in the actors, the urban setting and the practices that surround it. Then it observes the development brought to diplomatic practices by new political stakes in the early 18th century. Ending the analysis at the end of the War of the Spanish Succession (Utrecht, 1713), the thesis concludes that this decade contributed to the continuous strengthening of a pluricultural diplomatic tradition that was ingrained in the urban setting of Montreal.

Historians have tried to determine what francophones read during the long 18th century for over a hundred years. To do so, they have studied library inventories, printing permits, and the archives of printer-editors, but these sources are fragmentary and of uncertain representativeness. This thesis reframes the question by studying, with a combination of computational methods and close reading, large digitized corpora that approximate the entire French-language print market of the long 18th century. Using these vast corpora, the thesis proposes and demonstrates that it is possible to pinpoint ideas to which readers were probably exposed frequently enough that the ideas influenced the readers’ mental maps of the world, regardless of what precise texts were involved in each case. Thus, the thesis shows that digital approaches constitute a major new tool for historians of reading and print, including (under some circumstances) when the only data at their disposal is OCR results plagued with high error rates. As an illustrative case study, the thesis examines imagined geographies, i.e., mental models of the world produced by exposition to print media containing direct or indirect descriptions of territories and their inhabitants. Concepts drawn from psychology, behavioural economics and media studies suggest how readers may have interiorized the messages transmitted by print and used them, consciously or not, to build their own imagined geographies. A study of some 70 000 volumes printed in French between 1700 and 1815, extracted from the Hathi Trust collection, shows that the Europe discussed in print expands eastward with time, that England draws most of the attention, and that discourses regarding most of the European powers are both remarkably stable and centred on war and aristocracy. Studies of major periodicals, cheap popular booklets (the Bibliothèque bleue), geography manuals and Raynal’s Histoire des deux Indes corroborate these findings. Examining the 14,547 geography articles published in Diderot’s Encyclopédie reveals a largely urban imagined geography that changes focus during publication, from Diderot’ purely descriptive science to a tool for cultural transmission when Louis de Jaucourt takes over primary writing duties; a parallel study of 6,053 articles drawn from all fields of knowledge shows that the Encyclopédie describes America as a young world rich in resources, primarily botanical, that are ripe for the taking. The way in which the colonial French Atlantic world is portrayed in the Ancien Régime’s main periodicals suggests that they may have played a role in the French public’s notoriously low interest for emigration to the colonies. Travel narratives of expeditions to the Pacific and around the world show tensions between the step-by-step construction of a utilitarian geography and the need to retain readers’ interest by multiplying picturesque or terrifying anecdotes. In all, print media propose to their readers imagined geographies that treat the outside world with distrust.

Acknowledging the fact that there is sometimes a dichotomy between food’s prescriptions and food’s practices, this thesis aims to illustrate the role played by popular tastes in the making of food choices. The study takes place in the spatiotemporal framework of Quebec between the years 1920 and 1949. This period stands out by the important amount of industrial and urban transformations in the Quebec society that are fit to create new food’s habits within the population. The aim of this thesis is to identify the way in which popular taste is constructed during this peculiar period, by the relation within several factors such as taste, economics, dietary or material considerations. To do so, this research explores the culinary content product in four major magazines of the time, which are La Revue moderne, La Revue populaire, La Terre de chez nous and the publications made by the Cercles de Fermières. Furthermore, we deconstruct the content of the culinary recipes to bring out certain food preferences and to extricate multiple sensorial components related to the perception of taste. Thereafter, we study discourses found in the culinary chronicles in order to locate the tastes and the preferences in the cultural context that generate them. Ultimately, we aspire to uncover a primordial aspect of the food act but often discarded from historical study, namely the taste.

Based on an analysis of the discourse about food contained in the Ling Long magazine (玲珑杂志 1931-1937), this dissertation focuses specifically on the transformations of the Chinese food habits that occurred in Shanghai in the 1930s by contact with nutritional knowledge from the West and under the impetus of Chinese elites who were looking for solutions to strengthen the nation. We show how Ling Long magazine participated in this phenomenon, not only by introducing its readership to the principles and concepts underlying scientific nutrition, but especially by adapting these new food standards and practices to both the local Chinese context and the concerns of its female readers.

Through a study of the exegetical works of various masters associated with the University of Oxford between 1229 and 1267, we attempt to describe a freer environment than the one provided by the Université de Paris, which had prohibited the teaching of Aristotle’s libri naturales in 1210 and 1215. Robert Grosseteste, Richard Fishacre, Simon of Hinton and Roger Bacon articulate a conception of knowledge and the value of philosophical activity that seems to favour a more peaceful reception of the Greek philosopher, since the practice of literal exegesis legitimizes the speculations about nature to which this activity gives rise. This thesis attempts to understand the connections made by thinkers of the young University of Oxford, through their practice of exegesis, between Revelation and profane knowledge, and to see how their idea of theological inquiry evolved in the 13th century. We show that for the Oxford masters, answers to questions about Scripture are provided by natural philosophy and that all forms of profane knowledge, therefore, are seen as necessary, while always in the service of faith.

The recent historical studies questioned both the modern assumption that divinatory practices were marginal within the Greek religion and the uniform and often Delphic vision of the oracular sanctuary, partly by broadening the spectrum of the studied sanctuaries. This research intends to contribute to this reconsideration. Rendering the diversity of the oracular phenomenon implies questioning first the characteristics of the oracular sanctuaries. So doing, a lexical grid of the oracular sanctuary can be drawn and allows its systematic identification. Then a more complete survey can be applied to Roman Anatolia, a very rich region regarding testimonies and sanctuaries. Forty-six Anatolian sanctuaries can be identified this way, and described as far as allowed by available ancient documents. Studying and comparing these sanctuaries illustrate the diversity of the phenomenon that is irreducible to a single pattern, a deity, a divinatory method or a scale. On the contrary, it shows the embedding of these sanctuaries in the human geography of Anatolia, in the people’s religious life (and not only for consulting kings and cities) and on a wider scale in the whole plurality and diversity of ancient polytheism. It eventually shows the proximity between oracular practices and other Anatolian religious practices allowing an analogous access to the divine. It is eventually the (partly modern) category of the oracular sanctuaries that is to be questioned and reconsidered, given the blurry and imprecise borders within the ancient practices and experiences, and the plasticity of the Greek mind regarding divination and religion.

Una serie di urne del periodo ellenistico presenta una scena particolare, quella in cui un licantropo esce da un pozzo e attacca un gruppo di soldati. Uno tra loro effettua una libagione vicino al mostro e al pozzo. Qualche secolo più tardi, l’autore romano Plinio il Vecchio riporta una vecchia leggenda etrusca, quella secondo cui Porsenna, re di Volsinii, invoca il fulmine per liberarsi di un mostro chiamato Volta, che aveva precedentemente devastato la città. La ricerca qui proposta intende stabilire dei collegamenti tra la rappresentanzione delle urne, nonché il mito del secondo libro del Naturalis Historia, così da collocarsi nel dibattito che rimane sempre attuale tra etruscologi. Grazie ai precedenti lavori su tale argomento, il presente studio cercherà di coprire il quadro storico in cui si collocano queste urne, principalmente originarie di Perugia e di Volterra. Il primo capitolo di questo lavoro presenta la storiografia esistente, seguita da un breve excursus delle urne del periodo ellenistico. Nel secondo capitolo, viene presentato il simbolismo del lupo e del licantropo sul piano antropologico. Seguono le prove letterarie e archeologiche che si riferiscono al lupo e al licantropo nell’Antichità (Grecia, Roma e popoli italici, Etruria), per dimostrarne l’appartenenza al mondo ctonio. Questo capitolo viene completato con l’esposizione dei collegamenti tra il licantropo delle urne e il mostro del racconto di Plinio. L’ultimo capitolo è infine dedicato a tutti gli altri elementi dell’urna e alla fonte pliniana, che meritano uno studio più approfondito, come le credenze etrusche sull’invocazione del fulmine, il pozzo come simbolo di passaggio tra i mondi, nonché la presenza del mitico re Porsenna. Questa tesi, che tratta di un tema di storia culturale, contribuisce a rinnovare un soggetto fonte di dibattito da oltre un secolo ormai, e presenta nuove prove che permettono di credere che la serie di urne etrusche allo studio potrebbe veramente rappresentare lo stesso mito che ci riporta Plinio il Vecchio. Si tratta anche di uno studio che rafforza l’ipotesi secondo cui tale leggenda etrusca sia sopravvissuta a diversi periodi di influenze esterne fino alla sua diffusione nel mondo romano durante la dinastia flavia.

In the fifteenth century, a valid and legitimate marriage, according to the Church, was monogamous, consensual, exogamous and indissoluble. If it is possible to describe rightly the theory, can we do the same about domestic reality and perception of marriage by the laity? It is to this double question that this master’s thesis seeks to answer. From late antiquity to the late middle Ages, the marriage’s doctrine changed, was refined and finally, fixed. Accordingly, the unions that do not meet these criteria weren’t perceived as legitimate by the ecclesiastical authorities. A non-marital relationship leads to noxious consequences for the couple’s offspring, whose illegitimacy. It’s why the Apostolic Penitentiary graciously intervened by exempting, by absolving and by "leveling" the canon law’s requirements. This office has softened the legislation’s implementation and allowed couples whose marriages were theoretically invalid, to remain married and legitimize their children.

If the signature of the Peace Accords in 1996 ended the thirty-six-year internal armed conflict between the State and the guerrillas, the peace in Guatemala remains nonetheless quite relative. After the genocide and the counterinsurgency campaigns, numerous Mayan peoples today are facing new threats related to the arrival of natural resource projects in the country. For many, they are the expression of a war by other means. This M.A. thesis looks into the resorts to the past used by activists mobilized to recover their lands and to protect their territory in the post-conflict period. Indeed, the renewal and the transformation of the violence in times of peace brought some inhabitants of the Ixil area to reflect differently on the recent and distant past. This investigation explores the narratives formulated by these militants and the functions of historical memory as a tool for political advocacy which enables to confront past and present violence. In order to do so, this study first analyzes a book originating from a process for the recovering of historical memory by a group of survivors of the internal armed conflict, then, the resort to historical memory by the inhabitants mobilized for the defense of their lands, and, finally, the role of the new generations within the memory and territorial activism in the Ixil area.

Paganism was a European reality for most of the medieval period. Missionaries and monarchs worked to reduce it through proselytism, conquest and assimilation of the various pagan populations. Many texts bear witness to these contacts between Christians and idolaters, while the chroniclers, recounting great events of their time, had no choice but to speak of the conflicts that broke out between them. Possessing writing unlike their pagans’ counterparts, Latin Christians thus left their vision of these strange adversaries. Tinged with numerous filters, the latter in no way represented historical reality, but rather the perception maintained by the elite with regard to heathenism. Thus, in this study, we propose to study this vision of otherness, while we examine the accounts of these contacts between Christianity and their pagan neighbours. Focusing on the period between 772 and 1283, we propose a case study, composed of four sets. In the first chapter, Charlemagne’s war against the Saxons between 772 and 804 will be discussed. Then, we will approach the Slavs who were fought by the Ottonians and the Salians between the Xth century and the great revolt of 1066. Third, we will focus on the Wendes against whom crusades were carried out between 1147 and 1185. Finally, we will conclude this analysis with a study of the Prussians during the crusades against them in the 13th century. By a qualitative analysis of the vocabulary used to characterize the heathens, we can highlight certain characteristics attributed to them, allowing, in conclusion, a comparative analysis thereby allowing a portrait of the evolution of the representation of pagans.

This doctoral thesis aims to study the construction, both physically and symbolically, of newly established and relocated capital cities in Brazil, Canada, and Kazakhstan from the mid-nineteenth century up until the late twentieth century. The research adopts a comparative approach that is informed by perspectives from cultural and political history, the history of architecture, and urban planning. The investigation is grounded in what this thesis claims to be the three sine qua non phases of construction in contemporary capital cities: (a) legislative and executive activities geared toward choosing new sites of government; (b) the adoption of architectural and planning designs for governmental buildings or districts which seek to represent the State in these new sites of government; and (c) inauguration ceremonies for the newly-appointed capital cities in the form of large state-sponsored events, designed to promote the new loci of political power. The exploration of these three historical aspects not only enables one to efficiently grasp the difference between capital cities and other types of cities but also provides an advantageous angle from which to explore the link between statehood and cityhood, as these interact and co-construct each other within the space of contemporary capital cities. Through an analysis of the three phases in three capital cities I propose to rethink the intellectual and political projects of elites and individuals who were involved in the process of each capital’s elaboration, in order to understand how their aspirations and political projects were translated into the material reality of the cities that would be defined as ‘capitals.’ Previous studies essentially regarded capital cities as a by-product of the development of nation-states or empires, taken as separate and unrelated cases, or explored the symbolic meaning of capital cities through a study of their geographical, architectural, and planning arrangements. This thesis strives to demonstrate that the emergence of at least three contemporary capital cities was due to complex and entangled relationships between former empires and current nation-states, for these were also based on the ongoing exclusion of those groups of people who did not fit easily within the official representations of national identity which the ruling elites were attempting to forge.

This thesis develops our knowledge of the history of children with physical disabilities in Quebec by analyzing the representations and services offered to this clientele between 1920 and 1990. Camped in the current critical studies on disability, it aims to integrate disability at the heart of the demonstration by postulating the social construction of this category of analysis. Addressing a largely unexplored theme in historiography, it enriches the history of childhood in Quebec, as well as that of education, assistance and health. It is based in part on the model developed by Marie-Claire Cagnolo around the “logics” that have governed the treatment of people with disabilities. This study also relies on a variety of sources, from philanthropic association archives to official documents and government reports. Some silences in history have also been partially filled by interviews with witnesses. The main hypothesis underlying this thesis is that the place of children with disabilities in the province is determined by a double tension, on one hand between the antagonistic logic of exclusion and integration, and on the other hand between medical sphere and the socio-educational sphere that determine the organization and prioritization of the services offered to this clientele. The demonstration is structured into six thematic chapters: after a methodological description, chapter two looks at the main actors (philanthropists and governments) with this clientele, chapter three addresses the discourses on young people with disabilities, while the subsequent chapters look at paramedical, educational and finally recreational services for them. The first services intended specifically for children with physical disabilities in Quebec have been implemented at the turn of the 1920s by women of the bourgeoisie who justified this incursion into the public sphere in the name of maternalism. These philanthropists participate in the movement to defend the rights of “crippled” children on the international scene during the inter-war period. The idea of a hegemonic medical hold in the care of young disabled people, often defended by researchers, is relativized by the predominant role of volunteers and their socio-political engagement, at least until the 1940s. Three figures emerge from the discursive analysis: the angelic victim, the rehabilitated child-citizen and the monster. The vulnerable “cripple” is part of a paternalistic approach of assistance, which makes the disabled person an object of compassion to arouse the charity of the public. The figure of the useful citizen calls for a logic of reparation and rehabilitation, which provides compensation for the members of the society that are not growing with the same chances as the others. As for the monster, it symbolizes the reaction of communities driven by fear and rejection responding to a logic of elimination or exclusion. These various logics are also evident in the care of children with disabilities in Quebec, both in terms of the organization of care and in the development of educational or recreational services. The logic of assistance, based on a combination of public and private support and the need to protect children, emerged in the response to polio epidemics from the 1930s to the 1960s, as well as in the operation of special schools or adapted camps. The tragedy of thalidomide marks a turning point in the early 1960s as the federal government’s blatant responsibility leads to the organization and funding of a rehabilitation program, according to a logic of reparation. However, this compensation is addressed to a well-defined category of citizens who have been wronged by state negligence and does not include all children with disabilities. Only a paradigm shift, transforming disability into a collective problem, and no longer individual, will allow the transition from a logic of reparation to that of participation and inclusion. This transition took place between 1970 and 1990, when the government of Quebec guaranteed the services offered, according to a societal logic based on social inclusion and the recognition of young people with disabilities as subjects of rights. These gains remain however fragile, at risk of falling into mechanisms of exclusion. Far from constituting a linear path leading from stigmatization to full recognition of rights in an inexorable progression, the past of children with disabilities is marked by ups and downs, sudden advances followed by regressions. The pejorative representations of children with disabilities, ranging from degenerate to monster, coexist with more positive images such as the future citizen or the subject of rights, just as the different logics of integration and exclusion coexist throughout history, a duality that still continues today.

This memoir examines Ai Weiwei’s life. Often portrayed as one of the most popular Chinese dissidents in the world, Ai Weiwei is depicted in Western media and governments as a brave opponent of the Chinese Communist Party who dares to defend the values of democratic systems. For its part, the Chinese regime prefers to present him as a disruptive element that has lost its Chinese identity. Through these different representations, we wonder who Ai Weiwei really is? More exactly, is he really a dissident? What values does he defend and why? What other aspects of his personality deserve our attention to better understand the person he is?In order to answer these questions, this memoir aimed to guide the analysis around the aspects of art, Internet and dissent in China. These three elements are closely linked to Ai Weiwei’s life and they offer the necessary tools to understanding our subject of study. Ultimately, we hypothesize that Ai Weiwei is not the character that governments and media around the world describe to us. The analysis reveals that he does not defend exclusively Western values and that he has not lost his Chinese identity. He shows activism attitude while art and Internet play a leading role in conveying his opinions. He officially became a Chinese dissident in 2011 when he was arrested, but he has since regained much of his freedom. In recent years, Ai Weiwei has redirected his activism towards issues that do not directly target the Chinese government to address human causes at the international level.

Après les chocs de la crise des années 1930 et de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale, les conditions de production et la représentation de l'histoire du Québec entrent dans une phase de profondes mutations. Alors que s'enfièvre le débat autour des causes du « retard » de la société québécoise et l'enjeu de sa « modernisation », le savoir historique que convoque une nouvelle génération de jeunes universitaires entend offrir une nouvelle intelligibilité de l'être-ensemble francophone. L'« école historique de Québec », qui a réuni des figures historiennes majeures comme Marcel Trudel, Fernand Ouellet et Jean Hamelin, naît dans cette foulée de changements où elle configurera, dans ses querelles nourries avec l'école de Montréal, une matrice fondamentale de l'historiographie québécoise contemporaine. Objet familier de notre mémoire savante et constitutif du récit des origines de la discipline historique au Québec, l'« école de Québec » n'en demeure pas moins une sorte d'évidence héritée et non problématisée, dont la construction rétrospective dénote une finalité utilitaire et idéologique plutôt que proprement heuristique. Or, l'évidence apparente du sens que l'on a longtemps perçue dans cette « école » dissimule une complexité que cette thèse s'emploie à analyser plus finement. Qui sont Trudel, Ouellet et Hamelin? Quelle place occupent leurs travaux dans l'historiographie québécoise et canadienne? Quelles influences ont-ils agrégé? Quel « récit des origines » du groupe ont-ils accrédité? Dans quelle mesure se sont-ils mis au service d'une option politique? Face à la difficulté de parler d'une école au sens fort du terme en raison, notamment, de la variété de sa production historiographique, de l'absence d'une doctrine intellectuelle puissamment articulée chez ses membres et de la discontinuité des générations et des trajectoires individuelles qui l'ont caractérisée, notre recherche s'emploie à retracer l’histoire de ce groupe d'historiens aux contours flous, à mieux cerner son identité et situer son apport à la recomposition du champ intellectuel et historiographique québécois d'après-guerre. Notre thèse soutient que la position originale du trio lavallois fut d'avoir constitué, plutôt qu'une école de pensée, une « école d'activité » (Samuel Gilmore), organisée autour d'une conception semblable des pratiques et de la méthode historienne plutôt que d'une orthodoxie ou un modèle d'interprétation unifié et cohérent. Bien entendu, cette disposition n'a pas pour autant empêché ces historiens de se reconnaître un même « air de famille » et d'esquisser un horizon interprétatif commun. Dans une perspective alliant l'historiographie et l'histoire intellectuelle, cette étude lève le voile sur les cheminements, à la fois convergents et divergents, de trois historiens majeurs du Québec contemporain situés à l'intersection des champs universitaire, intellectuel et politique. Ce faisant, elle offre un point d'observation privilégié pour jauger les rapports évolutifs entre le savoir historique et la culture au Québec et cerner la particularité du « terreau » intellectuel lavallois dans la spécificité de ses réseaux nationaux et internationaux ainsi que de ses accointances avec la pensée antinationaliste, libérale et fédéraliste d'après-guerre.

This thesis is a survey of a rarely studied field of international relations. It is interested in the role of women’s sartorial fashion within the Franco-American postwar relations between 1946 and 1960. The analysis takes on the French perspective through the prism of the public authorities and diplomatic bodies, Parisian couturiers, and textile manufacturers. This orientation highlights the two fields on which these actors wish to see manifest an influence of fashion in the United States, namely commercial and prestige propaganda. In their perspective, these two forms of propaganda can be implemented either through indirect actions (press coverage of their fashion shows) or direct actions (shows organized to promote specific products or French production as a whole). The analysis is then completed by integrating the perspective of American fashion professionals (specialized press, manufacturers and retailers) and that of the American diplomatic bodies in France, and the study of customs statistics in order to evaluate, from the viewpoint of these historical actors, the degree of success of fashion as an instrument of French influence in the United States in regard of the initial French expectations. The research question answered by this thesis is: How important is fashion as an instrument of French influence in the United States after the Second World War? In order to answer it, the analyses procedes in three steps. On the one hand, the intersection of the historical contexts of fashion and Franco-American relations highlights the importance of the advent of the American superpower. This requires the French to adapt in terms of their production methods and their relationship to the American perspective of liberal and democratic modernity. On the other hand, the research was based on a chronological approach distinguishing between the 1946-51 and 1952-60 periods. The first one precedes the state intervention in favor of the Parisian couturiers and the second one is dominated by the state-sponsored Aid to Parisian couture. The thesis shows that the commercial influence of Parisian fashion in the United States did not materialize contrary to the couturiers’ claims and to the textile industrialists’ expectations. However, with respect to its influence through prestige propaganda, the situation is quite different. Long regarded as an ersatz to the commercial purpose of propaganda by the state – with the exception of the French diplomatic bodies that particularly appreciate its prestige purpose –, from 1957, France’s “rayonnement” through the dissemination of fashion ideas becomes key to French leaders. From then on, its role is to take advantage of the craving for Parisian fashion ideas to ensure a French presence – beyond fashion – in the American market: a mass market otherwise difficult to penetrate, being the largest in the world.

This thesis studies the European Defence Community (EDC), a plan for a European supranational army proposed by French politicians in October 1950 and rejected by the French National Assembly in August 1954. It is more precisely concerned with the position of the French army, a group directly concerned by the project. The subject has been relatively neglected by historians. The army was being asked to pursue two contradictory tasks: fight alongside its allies the threat the Soviet Union was supposed to represent without sacrificing its independence. This thesis will focus, among other things, on the arguments presented for and against the EDC, the differences of opinion within the army, the factors that might account for these differences, the relative importance of the supporters and detractors of the project, and the variables taken into consideration by the members of the army on both sides (the communist threat, national power, colonial power, supranationalism, independence, etc.) It is based on the archives of the Service historique de la Défense (SHD), located in Vincennes, near Paris. This thesis shows that, although a majority clearly opposed the EDC, there was also a significant pro-EDC current, whose importance has often been underestimated by historians, and that both sides primarily used political arguments.

This master thesis qualifies the friendship of two college students of the collège de Valleyfield between the years 1900 and 1908. It analyzes the intimate journals of Erle G. Bartlett (1886-1945) and Émile Léger (1883-1908) and their correspondence. This thesis also studies their relationship with Lionel Groulx (1878-1967) who is their spiritual director. While studying friendship practises and intimate exchanges between the pupils it is possible to show that the friendships between Erle and Émile constitute emotional refuges in the college strict emotional community. Both students define their friendships as Catholic friendships, elitist relationships with union in prayer for ideal. Mentorship relationship between pupils of different ages constitutes an imitation of the practice of spiritual direction applied in their friendships. Lionel Groulx influence the student's conception of friendship by making them read romantic Catholics authors, particularly Charles de Montalembert (1810-1870). The « Montalembertisation » of Erle and Émile encourage them to adopt a romantic friendship vocabulary more characteristic of 19th century friendships. As for Lionel Groulx, his inexperience in being a spiritual director makes him nearly become Émile and Erle friend instead of director. Those relationships will merit him to be sent away temporarily from the college in 1902. Lionel Groulx and his pupils, first members of the Action catholique de la jeunesse canadienne-française (A.C.J.C.) at the collège de Valleyfield, are not able to add a mandate of « Montalembertisation » at the A.C.J.C. The friendships of Erle and Émile are one of the last testimonies of romantic friendship between college students in an area where homophobia is more and more common thus rending this kind of homosocial friendship suspicious.

Although the field of memory studies is well-developed in medieval history, the role of gender in the construction of memory is only just beginning to be integrated. This M.A. thesis considers the relationships among gender, memory and history at the monastery of San Salvatore/Santa Giulia in Brescia (ca. 8th and 9th centuries). These three concepts help to expand our understanding of the place memory occupied in the monastery and its historical context, a function reinforced by the primacy of monasteries in the management of memory and the crafting of history within the Carolingian Empire. The Liber memorialis is the primary source for this study. The document, written from 856, contains lists of names of persons belonging to the prayer community and liturgical texts. It transmits ritual practices related to intercession for the dead as well as the names of people who are part of the abbey’s prayer community. We also seek to understand how the Liber memorialis served as a means to craft representation and the perpetuation of different levels and logics of real and ideal communities: the local and imperial aristocracy, the imperium, and the ecclesia. In this study, we will place the Liber memorialis of Brescia within the wider ideological context of time.

Through an approach that seeks to link the question of the culture of war to the awareness of the social, economic and political dimensions of war, this study highlights the construction of the figure of the landsknecht through the prism of the practices of these German mercenaries and the representations of French contemporaries. To identify this dominant figure of the Renaissance, it is a question of circumscribing the strategies implemented by the lansquenets, i.e. the arsenal of symbols, speeches and behaviours to which the members of this group refer, and to confront them with the discourses of the French military and civilians in order to apprehend the perception they have of the landsknechte and the behaviours they develop towards them. The dialectic between the practices of the Lansquenets and the French representations of them illustrate the profound transformations of the French monarchy at the dawn of the Modern Era and reveals a society's apprehension of alterity.